OBOLO PEOPLE: THE TRUE ABORIGINES OF THE SHORELINE COMMUNITIES AND COASTAL LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS OF AKWA IBOM STATE IN EASTERN NIGER DELTA, NIGERIA
By Dr John Ukpatu
1.0 Introduction
The Obolo people, sub-group of Ijaws, are the true aborigines of the shoreline communities and coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta. They hold greater antiquity in Akwa Ibom State. They are equally the initial and native inhabitants of the wetlands, near shore areas, coastline settlements and seaboard of the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. History, ancient roots, socio-economic ancestries, treaties and legends are there to speak.
2.0 History of the Obolos
Historically, the origin of Obolo (east and west), Ibeno and Oro of Ijaw sub-group in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria is traced to DO who once lived in the heart of Egypt after the great flood of Noah’s day between 2348- 5000 BC and begat Doni (the date derived from the Biblical Account of the great flood). Specifically, Jeffreys, M. D. W (1927, 1931) reported that there was a record of Dony or Doni who begat Obolo and Oro his brother leaving Egypt at the time of Babel and confusion (the time of babel and confusion was 700 years after the great flood before Abraham was born) to Cameroon and later to Obolo territory in Nigeria [1, 2]. There was a supporting version of ‘Ido’(the name of an ancient Obolo King) who left Egypt to the Cameroons and later to the present Obolo territory[3].
From the Biblical account and documented historical evidence, it is reasonable to assert that the period of migration of Obolo people from Ancient Egypt was about 700 years after the event of the great flood through the tributaries of Nile River Valley to Urombi (Cameroon), a site on the coast at what is now the Nigeria-Cameroon border. The migration route of the Obolo people from Cameroon was through the Rio del Rey estuary in Ndian District in South West (Sud Ouest) Cameroon (also called Rio del Ray), an estuary of a drainage basin in West Africa in Cameroon and also through the Ramby sea-inlet to the upper reaches of the Cross River towards its mouth and finally to the Oron Island. As described by different Obolo sub-groups, the point of migration of Obolo people from Camaroon was (“Urombi", the Obolo-Andoni, the Ibeno "Irombi", the Oron "Idombi") while the inhabitants of the place called it "Ramby" or Bamusso in Southern Camaroon. Thus, Obolo (east and west), Ibeno and Oro have common origin and communal migration place and voyage route. Their migration point (Urombi) is unambiguous, unidirectional, universal and independently of the Ibibios.
As earlier stated, Obolo is a sub-group of the Ijaw people living in the Eastern Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Jefferys (1927, 1931) [4] , Alagoa (1972) [5], Uya (1984) [6], Ejituwu (1991), [7]. Enemegwum (2006)[8]. and other notable historians had earlier confirmed that, the ancestors of Obolo (Andoni) people migrated from Egypt in Central Africa to Cameroon and later to Obolo territories in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria and they were the first to occupy the Eastern Niger Delta [4.5.6,7, 8]. Obolo migrations must have occurred between 200 and 1200AD and they must have arrived Oron before 715 AD [9]. According to Alagoa (1972), [10] the eastern Ijo (Ijaw) communities were insitu well before the era of Bini expansion and dispersal (850 AD).
The author further stated that the earlier radio-carbon dates for lower level settlement deposits at Ke (Kalabari) and Okochiri (Okrika) were recorded as c.715A.D and c.855A.D respectively. Besides, it is on record that Kalabari and Okrika had lived in the heart of Obolo land before their migration to their present locations where these dates were exhumed. These radio-carbon dates attest to the antiquity of Obolo and confirmed that the Obolo people were already insitu in the Eastern Niger Delta before the discovery of these dates. Thus, it is realistic to assert that the Obolo people arrived their present abode before 715 A.D. Uya (1984: 31)[11] confirmed this date but added that the arrival of Obolo at Oron suggests an earlier date of settlement of Oro, the Obolo brother. Additionally, the description of Ibeno Beach: So white, so natural in PUNCH Newspaper of MAY 18, 2014 BY ETIM EKPIMAH revealed that the Obolos (Ibeno indigenes) occupied the area around the Ibeno Beach in Eastern Niger Delta between 1200-1500 BC [12].
Premised upon these settlement dates, Horton, R. (1998) asserted thus: “One apt general observation that can be made of the Obolo (Ijo) in general is that they are of considerable antiquity in the Eastern Niger-Delta” [13]. Furthermore, the Obolo may be part of the Koro ame Ijaws who were the original owners of the Akwa Ibom shore line all the way to the present day Bakassi [14]. Obolo is an ethnic and a linguistic term. The Obolo people are the present people of Eastern Obolo, Ibeno, Mbo, Okobo, Oron, Udung Uko and Urueffong/Oruko) in Akwa Ibom State and those in Rivers State and other States in Nigeria and the world. The slight dialectal differences among the Obolo groups are due to minor territorial demarcation for administrative convenience and neighborhood linguistic infiltrations occasioned by inter-communal business pursuits.
However, at this point, it is equally reasonable to turn to the documented history of some other ethnic groups especially (Ibibio, Annang. Efik etc) that constitute the Eastern Niger Delta to draw conclusion on this subject of Obolo as the first inhabitants of the shoreline communities in the Eastern Niger Delta region.
3.0 Brief history of some ethnic groups in the Eastern Niger Delta
3.1 The Origin of Ibibio
The Ibibio people migrated from the eastern axis of their ancient homeland and arrived by an overland route and settled at Ibom in Arochukwu formerly an Ibibio territory (Talbot, 1926[15], 1967Noah 1980b[16], Otobong Uwah, 2022 [17], Archibong Eyo, 2022) [18]. This was earlier reported by Jeffreys (1927) [19] that Ibibio lived in Arochukwu probably between A.D. 1300 and 1400 and for a long time maintained a famous shrine called Long Juju of Arochukwu (Ibritam). As a result of clashes with the Igbo people who were moving southward, culminating in the Ibibio War which took place about 1630 and 1720 A.D., they left Ibom Kingdom and moved to the present day Ibibioland [20]. The Ibibio first settled in Ikono [ Naoh, 1980 b] from where they migrated or dispersed to further places in the present Ibibio lands. But some village settlement had already been established in their current location alongside the Ibom [21]. Reliably, scholars continue to sustain the theory of Ibom in Arochukwu as the cradle of Ibibio expansion (Naoh, 1980 b; [22], Otobtong Uwah, 2022 [23]).
3.2 The Origin of Annang
The thesis of DONI, the father of Obolo and Oro migrating from Egypt between 2348-5000BC is fundamental and ground laying because it is equally postulated that the Annang people of Akwa Ibom State also originated from Egypt and began their migration from Egypt around 7500BC and settled in Ghana before arriving in the present area [24]. In spite of this historical account, it is not too clear when the Annangs arrived in the present day Akwa Ibom State but Archibong Eyo asserts that those that come by overland route and settled at Arochukwu later dispersed to Abak, Ikot Ekpene in Annang clan. It is postulated that the people of present-day Abak, Ikot Ekpene might have migrated from the part of the country called, Arochukwu with the Ibibio. Going by the settlement date (AD 1300 and 1400) of the Ibibio at Arochukwu and the movement date from Arochukwu (1630-1720 AD)[25] and subsequent dispersal to Abak, Ikot Ekpene.., it therefore connotes that the settlement of some of the Annang clans may have been within the period of Ibibio settlement at Ikono. It is recorded that the cradle of the Ibibio people lies somewhere between the Abak clan (Annang) and Uyo axis of Akwa Ibom State [26, 27, 28]. Although the structural layout of Annang clans today barely supports this viewpoint that they are part of Ibibio or accept the claim in some Ibibio books that they are eastern/delta Ibibio.
3.3 The Origin of Efik
From historical records, the split of the sub-group (now called the Efik) from their kinfolk the (Uruan), seem to have commenced around the sixteenth century. After an exit from Ikoneto, the greater parts advanced to Mbiabo and Adiabo and while others to Creek Town (Talbot, Percy Amaury (1926) )[29], Archibong Eyo, 2022) )[30]. Talbot[31] who for many years conducted anthropological research among the Ibibio, suggested that the Efik started to claim a separate identity at about 1600 AD.
The final settlement of the Efik, according to some sources seems to have occurred in 1670 AD. Although considerable controversy still surrounds this date of Efik arrival in Calabar, which was already inhabited by the Enwang, it is now reasonable to accept that the Efik arrived Duke Town sometime in the 15th century, probably between 1400 and 1420 AD)[32]
4.0 Interpretation of the History of the inhabitants of the Eastern Niger Delta
From the historical evidence earlier discussed, DONI, the father of Obolo and Oro migrated from Egypt between 2348-5000BC (after the great flood) and arrived Nigeria between 1200-1500 BC [33] and spread to other parts in the coastline of the Eastern Niger Delta along the Gulf of Guinea and later moved to Oron in 715AD in what is now known as Akwa Ibom State in Eastern Niger Delta [34]. Therefore, it is clear that Obolo people had settled earlier in the Eastern Niger Delta coast and in what is now known as Akwa Ibom State before the arrival of the Ibibio from Arochukwu (1300-1400AD) [35] and from Arochukwu to their present abode between 1630 and 1720 A.D and far before the Efik left Ibibio to established Duke Town between A.D 1400 and 1420. These documented migration and settlement dates confirm the hypothesis that Obolo people are the true aborigines of the shoreline communities and coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria.
Additionally, ARCHIBONG EYO (the Prince of Bakassi) in his paper titled: ‘Origin of the Ibibio people’ wrote thus: “there are two dimensions of origin of Akwa Ibom people: (i) those who came ashore via sea constitute Ibeno, Oron (Obolo)... and (ii) those who came by overland route and settled at Ibom in Aroachuku and later dispersed to Abak, Ikot Ekpene, Uyo, Itu, Ikono and other part of Cross River[36]. The author was correct because those who came ashore via sea ( Ibeno, Oron, Obolo…) were the Obolo people who were the earliest occupants of the shoreline communities and coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. .
Similarly, those that came from overland route to Ibom (Arochukwu) formerly an Ibibio territory were the Ibibio people and their sub groups. Ibibio is the indigenous people of Ikot Oku Ikono , Ekom Iman, Uyo, Etinan, Nsit etc. These areas are far from the seacoast of Akwa Ibom State. Explaining further the dispersal of the Ibibio people on their arrival from Arochukwu, Archobong Eyo wrote thus: ‘In other respects, the Ibibio migrated from Ibom (Arochukwu) and adjusted to the riverine environment…’ This statement portrays the fact that the Ibibio did not settle first along the seacoast but on their arrival from Arochukwu, they adjusted later to the riverine environment.
5.0 Other Historical facts about Obolo/Ijaws as the true Aborigines in the Eastern Niger Delta
There are several historical facts, ancient roots, socio-economic ancestries and legends to further support the assertion that the Obolo people are the Obolo people are the true aborigines of the shoreline communities and coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria. These include:
5.1 Primary historical roots of Obolo/Ijaws as the true Aborigines in the Eastern Niger Delta
The primary historical roots of the Obolos as the true Aborigines in the Eastern Niger Delta are not speculative. Scholars had confirmed that Obolo, sub-group of the Ijaws were the earliest people to occupy the Eastern Niger Delta. For instance, Anene (1966: p.7) [37] recorded that the Obolos were the first group to occupy the Eastern Niger Delta. Alagoa (1972:pp163-4) [38] confirmed that the Obolos (from Ijo) were long established in the Eastern Niger Delta coast before any other group. Therefore, the Obolo people (Eastern Obolo, Ibeno, Mbo, Okobo, Oron, Udung Uko and Urueffong/Oruko) in Akwa Ibom State have unimpeachable historical roots and undisputed geographical territory as the true aborigines of shoreline communities in Akwa Ibom State, Eastern Niger Delta, and Nigeria. They occupy the largest coastline that transverses chains of islands from Cross River basin to Qua Iboe River to Imo River and up to Andoni River near Bonny Island in Nigeria. Obolo homeland lies about 4o31'N Latitude and 8o36' E Longitude and falls within the Eastern Niger Delta Region.
5.2 Socio-economic ancestries of Obolo/Ijaws as the true Aborigines in the Eastern Niger Delta
Alagoa 1972[39] and Ejituwu 1991[40] recorded that the Obolo (Idoni or Indo) before the colonial era had commercial contact with European traders and with other neighbouring Ijaw clans, such as Bonny, Okrika, Kalabari, Nkoro, Ndoki, Ogoni and Ibibio. Authors further wrote that groups like Ibibio, Ndoki (Ibo) and Ogoni were only attracted to the coast of the Eastern Niger Delta by the prosperity of the sea board-hinterland trade between the Portuguese and Africans (especially the Obolos who were the first occupants of the seacoasts of the Eastern Niger Delta ([41]Dike, 1956: p.24; , Ejituwu, 1991:p68[42] and Horton, 1998:p.22)[43]. Ejituwu, 1991:pp51-2[44] reiterated that other ethnic groups (in what is now known as Akwa Ibom State) were far from the coast but what brought them especially the Ibibios nearer to the earliest inhabitants of the coast (Obolo/Ijaws) was the exchange of their vegetable and other agricultural products of the hinterland with dried fish and salt from Obolo territories along the seacoast.
In the pre-colonial era, the pivot of economic development in Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria rested on Obolo territory. For instance, Ibeno Monarch, King Uko Utong was among the first in the Niger Delta region to own the largest depot of palm oil industry in Kwa Iboe River Basin between 1871 and 1873[45]. Additionally, based on a duty of ten (10) Shillings paid to the Obolo people in 1861 (equivalent to Five thousand, one hundred seventy Naira, N5,170 based on 2022 exchange rate of 517 naira per dollar) per ton on all the produce exported from the Kwa Iboe estuary, an annual royalty of 500, 000 Shillings (N 2.6M) were received by Obolo chiefs during the period of Atlantic palm oil trade (1871-1873) with the European merchants who anchored at Obolo territories along the Gulf of Guinea[46]. According to Uya, 1984 [47], the involvement of Oron people in gathering supplies for export began to open the economy of the Obolo area to the vagaries of the international market. Thus, the Obolo region had created pre-colonial and post-colonial economy legacy in Nigeria. The economic importance and prowess of Obolo region in the palm oil trade (1802-1875) equally attracted other groups to Obolo coastal areas along the Atlantic coast.
Other factors that attracted other sub-groups of the Eastern Niger Delta to Obolo territories include: the early spiritual prosperity of the Obolo homelands. Obolo people were among the first to embrace the early missionaries in the Eastern Niger Delta. In 1699, Obolo people had a good fortune to embrace Christianity through Augustian and Capuchin monks from Portugal [48]. The sacred relationship between the early missionaries and the Obolos at the seacoast brought supernatural welfare and this attracted other ethnic groups to Obolo homelands at the coast. Specially, the Anglican Church (Church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion) established in Bethlehem of Amazaba in 1893[49,50] (the perish that gave birth to Uyo Diocese, Church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion) was a rallying point to other Christian faithful from Ibibio and other ethnic groups in the Eastern Niger Delta. Also, the establishment of Qua Iboe Church in Ibeno on September, 14, 1887 attracted the Ibibio to Ibeno, the national headquarters of Quo Iboe Church, Nigeria. Consequently, Obolo people of Ibeno through the Qua Iboe Mission helped to spread Christianity, Education and spiritual fortune to Etinan (1900), Ikot Ubo (1904), Eket(1907), Ika Annang (1916) and midwifed the establishment of Bill Theological College in 18th January, 1941[51].
5.3 Oil and Gas in Obolo land
With the passing of Nigeria Petroleum Industry Act 2022, there are attempts by persons who don’t have any bearing with the oil exploration communities within Akwa Ibom State to want to cease part of Obolo land to qualify them as host communities. Premised upon this statement, Dr. Tom Mbeke-Ekanem, wrote thus: “The situation between Ekid and Ibuno is by no means unique. I am of the opinion that these squabbles came to take preeminent because of the oil exploitation in the area.”
Consequent upon the foregoing, it is true that further factors that brought the Ibibio and other Obolo neighbours closer to the coastline were: the discovery of the first oil well (though not in commercial quantity) at Okoroete urban market, Eastern Obolo in 1956, the discovery and establishment of onshore oil well at Utapaete in Iko, Eastern Obolo and numerous offshore oil wells /gas industries, the establishment of Mobil terminal in Mlpanack- Ibeno in 1967 in addition to discovery of several oil wells in Oro axis of Obolo land. Thus, Obolo Local Government Areas (Eastern Obolo, Ibeno, Mbo, Okobo, Oron, Udung Uko and Urueffong/Oruko) in Akwa Ibom State are the ONLY territories that have borders with the majestic Atlantic Ocean and these areas harbour almost all the oil/gas wealth of Akwa Ibom State and contribute 98% to the making of Akwa Ibom State as the leader of crude oil/gas producers in Nigeria. Thus, oil and gas blessings in Obolo also attracted other neighbours to Obolo territories.
6.0 Conclusion
Going by the settlement history, dispersion hypothesis and undisputed legends earlier discussed, it is safe to conclude that:
(i) The Obolo people arrived first on the seacoast along Akwa Ibom shoreline and occupied the entire coast line of Eastern Obolo, Ibeno, Mbo, Okobo, Oron, Udung Uko and Urueffong/Oruko in Akwa Ibom State. They are the first occupants in the Eastern Niger Delta. They are aboriginal people of the coastal communities of Akwa Ibom State and have considerable antiquity in the Eastern Niger-Delta.
(ii) The Ibibio people on arrival from Aroackwuku were not close to the coast but they later adjusted to the riverine areas in the present day Akwa Ibom State.
(iii) The Ibibio has no boundaries with the Obolo along the Atlantic coastline. Their homelands are far from the seacoast and history has not established them as aboriginal coastal inhabitants but as Obolo neighbours.
(iv) The origin, migration and early settlement of the Ibibio people have nothing to do with the Obolos. Both groups came from a known origin and migration routes independently of each other with divergent migration dates and settled as neighbours in a place caved, known and address today as Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria.
(v) Historical facts, ancient roots, socio-economic ancestries and legends support the assertion that the Obolo people are the Obolo people are the true aborigines of the shoreline communities and coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in the Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria.
(vi) The Obolo people were insitu in the Eastern Niger Delta but Atlantic economy, palm oil affluence, spiritual prosperity and oil oil/gas wealth in Obolo land attracted the Ibibios and other ethnic groups near the Obolo coastline.
(vii) The royalties, water rights and compensations that accrued to the Obolo people from these socio-economic outfits and business firms continue to magnify the status of Obolo as the true aborigines of the shoreline Communities and Coastal Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State in Eastern Niger Delta, Nigeria.
7.0 Endnotes
(1) Jeffreys, M.D.W (1927). Adiasim Group Intelligence Report by C. P Thompson, Assistant District Officer. Also Old Calabar and Notes on the Ibibio Language by M. D.W. Jefferys, B. A., Oxon, PhD London, Rhodes scholar, District officer Nigeria. H.W.T.I press, Calabar, 1935)
(2) Jeffreys, M. D. W (1931). Report on the Andoni Tribes in Opobo division. Jeffreys was the senior district officer appointed by the colonial government in charge of Opobo division. Jeffreys did nine days of intensive fieldwork among Obolo, collecting information on their historical traditions and their social organization and system of government.
(3) ( Ejituwu, N. C (1989). The Lower Cross River: “Andoni Migration and Settlement,”In Abasiatti Monday B. (ed.), A History of the Cross River Region of Nigeria (Calabar, 1989: 23-39).
(4) Ibiid Jefferys (1927, 1931),
(5) Alagoa (1972) [ Source of carbon-dating for Kalabari and Okirika: Alagoa], “ The pre-History of the Niger Delta”, 1976:15 cited by Ejituwu 1991:33,”
(6) Uya, O.E (1984). History of Oron people of the lower Cross River Basin. Manson publishers, Oron, pp3-9
(7) Ejituwu, N. C (2005). “Obolo (Andoni) Origins and Migrations” In Amadi, I. R et al.eds., History and Citizenship: Essays in Honnour of Okon Edet Uya (Calabar 2005”99-105.
(8) Enemugwen, J.H. (2006) Obolo and the Peopling of the Niger Delta, Makurdi: Aboki Publisher, pp. 3-5.
(9) Ibiid Uya, O.E (1984).
(10) Ibiid Alagoa (1972)
(11) Description of Ibeno Beach: So white, so natural in PUNCH Newspaper MAY 18, 2014 BY ETIM EKPIMAH).
(12) (Horton, R (1998). Some fresh thought on eastern Ijo origins, expansions and migrations. In N. C Ejituwu (Ed). The multi-disciplinary approach to African history, essays in honour of Ebieberi Joe Alagoa (pp:195-235). Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press)
(13) Ibiid Alagoa (1972)
(14) (Talbot, 1926
(15) Noah, Monday Effiong (1988) Procewdings of the Ibibio Union 1928-1937
(16) Otobong Uwah, 2022, Ibibio Nation: History and Culture, Parresia Publishers Ltd, 82, Allen Avenue, Ikaja, Lagos, Nigeria
(17) Archioong Eyo, "ORIGIN OF IBIBIO PEOPLE - We Africa Preview". wap.org.ng. Retrieved 2022-12-27. "Nigerian Arts and Culture Directory - Akwa Ibom State". Archived from the original on 16 January 2019. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
(18) Ibiid Jeffreys (1927)
(19) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(20) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(21) Ibiid (Naoh, 1980b
(22) Ibiid Otobtong Uwah, 2022
(23) Koelle, W (1854) Polyglotta African cited in Udo E. U (1983). The History of the Annang people, Apcon Press Ltd, Calabar, Nigeria and Udo E. U (1983). The History of the Annang people, Apcon Press Ltd, Calabar, Nigeria.
(24) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(25) Ibiid Naoh, 1980 b
(26) Ibiid Otobtong Uwah, 2022
(27) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(28) Talbot, Percy Amaury (1926). The Peoples of Southern Niger, vol.1. History, London. Also, Talbot, Percy Amaury (1967). Life in Southern Nigeria. The magic, beliefs and customs of the Ibibio tribe, p.159
(29) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(30) Ibiid Talbot, Percy Amaury (1926) )
(31) (Chief Mba private papers as cited by Uya, 1984:30-31.
(32) Ibiid ETIM EKPIMAH, MAY 18, 2014
(33) Uya, O.E (1984). History of Oron people of the lower Cross River Basin. Manson publishers, Oron, pp3-9
(34) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(35) Ibiid Archibong Eyo, 2022)
(36) Anene, J. C. 1966). Southern Nigeria in Transition, 1885-1906: Theory and Practice in a Colonial Protectorate. Cambridge. Cambridge University
(37) Ibiid Alagoa (1972:pp163-4)
(38) Ibiid Alagoa (1972:pp163-4)
(39) Ejituwu (1991), A History of Obolo (Andoni) in the Niger Delta, (Oron: Manson, 1991), p.23. Historical sources, especially the writings of Professor N.C. Ejituwu, tell us that the Obolo had their beginnings as a primary fishing group in the area constituting the Nigeria-Cameroun border around a town called Urombi (now known as Bamusso)
(40) Dike, K. O (1956). Trade and politics in the Niger Delta, 1830-1885. An introduction to economic and political development in Nigeria. Oxford: Clarendon Press, : p.24;
(41) N.C, Ejituwu, A History of Obolo (Andoni) in the Niger Delta, (Oro: Mason, 1991, p33-68
(42) Ibiid Horton, 1998:p.22
(43) Alagoa, E.J. (1972), A History of the Niger Delta: an historical interpretation of Ijo oral tradition, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, pp 163-64
(44) Alagoa, E. J (1980). Peoples of the Cross River Valley and the Eastern Niger Delta. In Ikime, O (Ed), Groundwork of Nigerian history. Ibadan. Heinemann
(45) Oral account of Chief David Enyina as reported by Enemengwum 2009 stated that King Uko Utong and Chief Enyina Akpanam of Ukpenekang of Ibeno had the richest palm oil belt of the Kwa Iboe Basin in the then South Eastern Nigeria
(46) Ibiid
(47) Ibiid Uya (1984)
(48) Barbot, John (1832). A Description of the coast of North and South Guinea. London, Churchill, 1832).
(49) Bishop Samuel Ajayi Crowther (a foremost clergyman of Church of Nigeria: Anglican Communion and the first African Anglican bishop of West Africa who died on 31 December 1891
(50) Chief Christopher John of Amangbauji village, Eastern Obolo, 1996 mimeographed
(51) A brief table of historical events by Quo Iboe Mission (1863-1994) in I.I Etteh’s file in Ibeno, retrieved in 2023).
(52) Dr. Tom Mbeke-Ekanem, REA Author, Beyond the Execution - Understanding the Ethnic and Military Politics in Nigeria Los Angeles, California. — with Ruth Portable and 63 others.
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